Speaking Anew Language Politics Of Totalitarianism Essay

Speaking Anew: Language Politics of Totalitarianism In the bleak new world of Orwell’s 1984, English as we know it has been replaced with â€Å"Newspeak,† a language stripped of all subtlety, ambiguity, and meaning beyond that proscribed by the ruling Ingsoc (English Socialist) party. All thought has been broken into two categories: â€Å"goodthink† (the reiteration of official party principles) and â€Å"crimethink,† and the range of thought is limited to that which is permitted by Ingsoc orthodoxy. Newspeak reads as a strange perversion of English, of all recognized rational thought. It’s bizarre and terrifying, but believably possible – as history has shown it to be. Authoritarian societies have used similar techniques for â€Å"linguistic engineering† (qtd. Sellner), many of which were laid out in Orwell’s blueprint for Newspeak. Language policy in totalitarian regimes works in conjunction with the destruction of free speech and press to attempt to control thought. Elements found in most linguistic engineering programs include extensive use of slogans, keywords, and quotations, creation of new political vocabulary, an emphasis on linguistic simplicity, vocabulary stressing communality of the group and the dehumanization of the ‘other,’ and the destruction of minority languages. Once these regimes fall, societies struggle to rebuild free thought into their language. Language control and the inherent politics of speech and words is a fascinating case study into the relationship betweenShow MoreRelatedRhetorical Analysis Of Harold Pinter s The Room 9709 Words   |  39 PagesDumbwaiter, the electric shock treatment given to Aston in the play The Caretaker, the torture meted out to Victor, his wife and his son in the play One for the Road, and the act of prohibiting the mountain people from speaking their own language in the play The Mountain Language are some of the manifold instances of ab use of power and the use of violence to tame the individuals who are termed as ‘abject’1 by the state owing to their very nature of threatening and opposing the authority and superiorityRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesHistory and Public Memories Tiffany Ruby Patterson, Zora Neale Hurston and a History of Southern Life Lisa M. Fine, The Story of Reo Joe: Work, Kin, and Community in Autotown, U.S.A. Van Gosse and Richard Moser, eds., The World the Sixties Made: Politics and Culture in Recent America Joanne Meyerowitz, ed., History and September 11th John McMillian and Paul Buhle, eds., The New Left Revisited David M. Scobey, Empire City: The Making and Meaning of the New York City Landscape Gerda Lerner, Fireweed:

Leadership Theory And Organizational Culture - 1361 Words

Abstract The role of leadership has evolved over the years. Early leadership theories focused on the characteristics of the leader and have shifted to focus on the leader’s behavior, skills and style. Emerging leadership theories continued to shift focus to team leadership and subordinate motivation. Organizational culture is exists in all organizations and influences the work environment. Researchers have studied leadership and organizational culture individually; however there have been less focus on gaining an understanding of the relationship leadership and organizational culture. In this paper, I will explore various leadership theories and relationship with organization culture. I will also reflect on the type of leadership style that promotes a positive organizational culture. Introduction Leaders set the tone for the organization while Organizational culture sets the values that influence the work environment. There needs to be some clarity on whether leadership influences organizational culture or does organizational culture influence leadership. In order to understand the relationship between leadership and organizational culture, we must first define them. Leadership defined Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. (Northouse, 2013). Leadership involves establishing clear visions, communicating the vision to followers, and developing strategies to achieve those goals. Leaders areShow MoreRelatedThe Theory Of Leadership And Its Influence On The Organizational Culture1671 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction: Leadership has been defined in various ways according to different schools of thoughts and approaches in which the concept has been looked at, but the general ideas that leadership is about the effective vision drawing, planning for achieving the goals, motivating people towards the pre-determined achievements, monitoring the performance, reviewing the results of past agendas and ability to avoid shortcomings if present. There are several theories of leadership depending on the approachesRead MoreEssay on Applied Business Research Case Study935 Words   |  4 Pagescorporations to failure, researchers and business leaders realize the need for ethical and sound leadership. The need for ethical and sound leadership helps to facilitate and manage daily operations and to sustain their competitive advantage within the global economy. However, with this evolution, numerous research studies add to the understanding of leadership theories and the effects on organizational climate and cul ture. The following findings concentrate on research limitations, ethical standards, analysisRead MoreOrganizational Change Essays1078 Words   |  5 PagesOrganizational change can be intimidating for business leaders. The internet hosts several sites for small consulting firms that specialize in helping corporate leaders initiative positive change in their organizational culture. One such firm, Change Management Solutions, Inc., (CMS) uses a five-step change model, which encompasses contemporary collective and collaborative theories and models of change and change leadership. The firm considers culture, organizational leadership, and change planningRead MoreConcept Of Culture For Organizational Business1519 Words   |  7 Pagesof culture for organizational business, we first must identify the two theories of culture theory and organizational theory. Diving into these two theories, we will review in detail of how each impact a family-owned business and how the effectiveness of the m anagement and leadership summarize the culture of the business while evaluating the different purposes about the nature of culture and the organization business. The evaluation will require a reflection on the concept of culture; â€Å"Culture isRead MoreOrganizational Culture And Leadership Development1275 Words   |  6 Pagesprogressively generate business associations with organizations whose cultures are different, employees may work with others who hold different views of what establishes effective functioning in an organization, and what relationships are existent between organizational factors and workplace effectiveness (Kwantes and Boglarsky, 2007). Knowing the importance of leadership in modern-day organizations, it is not shocking that leadership development gets the biggest percentage distribution from trainingRead MoreAnalysis Of Organizational Management During The United States Military1545 Words   |  7 PagesAnalysis of Organizational Management in the United States Military Throughout history, the theory of what constitutes effective management practice has evolved with the changes and advances in technology and society. However, there are basic principles of each theory that have either influenced contemporary theory or are overtly used in today’s organizations. For example, the United States military overall ascribes to a classical organizational theory of management with an emphasis on transactionalRead MoreHow Does Leadership Impact The Success Of A Company?1181 Words   |  5 PagesHow does leadership impact the success of a company? Many leadership theories exists in today’s business world, even more theories are taught. How does leadership impact the success of a company? Reflecting on current trends we will discover if one person truly has the power to positively or negatively affect the success of a company through leadership. Truly effective leaders know the respect of people is not just commanded it is earned. Accomplishing this type of respect is displaying the knowledgeRead MoreBusiness Ethics : Bus 610 Organizational Behavior1113 Words   |  5 PagesEthics Prem Yadav BUS 610 Organizational Behavior Dr. Rollis Erickson June 29, 2015 Introduction Excellence of an organizational leadership determines how well an organization is doing. Effective leadership is influencing the behavior of individuals and groups in positive way to work towards a predefined organizational goal (Baack, 2012). An effective leader creates vision for the organization and effectively communicates with employees to set the organizational direction for growth, alignRead MoreFactors Influencing Organizational Behavior And The Organization1123 Words   |  5 PagesFactor Influencing Organizational Behavior Student Name Course Name Course Code Introduction The study of human behavior in organizational settings, the interface between human behavior and the organization and the organization itself is known as Organizational Behavior. The study of organizational behavior can be divided into three levels: †¢ Micro Level – Individuals in an organization †¢ Meso Level – Work Groups †¢ Macro Level – How organizations behave It was observed by ChesterRead MoreImportance Organizational Leadership Has on Companies Today1657 Words   |  7 PagesAfter reading an article about organizational leadership, I was more enlightened on the value and importance organizational leadership has on companies today. The article discussed the significance of organizational leadership and how leaders can motivate their followers to accomplish corporate objectives and help them realize their full potential. More importantly understanding the organizational leadership theories can support the growth and development of leadership skills and identify potential

Lake effect snow in areas east of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie Free Essays

The effect of lake effect snowfall has increasing been felt by residents of cities east side of Lakes Ontario and Lake Erie.   Areas surrounding these great lakes can attest to the fact that amount of snowfall each year increases causing devastating damages to the livelihood of city residents in Buffalo, Rochester Watertown and Syracuse.   These effects are felt more by these areas since they lie on the leeward sides. We will write a custom essay sample on Lake effect snow in areas east of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie or any similar topic only for you Order Now    During winter days, the snow surface can raise to as high as 1200cm.   In such extreme cases, recreational activities, schooling agriculture and other economic activities have been profoundly incapacitated (Rosenfeld, 2000). The major explanation that has been underpinned to increased lake effect snowfall is global warming caused by emissions of green gases.   This paper makes a summary of the proposed project which is an analysis of the lake effect snowfall in cities east side of lakes Ontario and lake Erie, by outlining the various data and methodology’s, interpretation tools and reasons why the steps will be crucial to achieving objectives of this proposed research.   Introduction The scientific explanation behind snowfall production is a clearly understood topic at least to most scientists; however, the lake effect snow that happens over great lakes in the USA remains a mystery.   However, â€Å"Numerous studies have found a strong correlation between the strength of lake-effect snow and the degree to which the wind changes direction with height in the lower atmosphere. Thus, the minimizations of directional wind `shear` is considered to be an excellent predictor of LES snowfall rates and intensity. In general, when we think about wind direction and lake-effect snow, the first thing that comes to mind is fetch and how it affects lake-effect snow. Assuming that there is sufficient number of cases, one may examine how other variables affect lake-effect snow when fetch remains the same. An example is studying how wind speed affects snowfall for a given fetch. The purpose of this project is to establish the extent of lake effect snow in Lake Erie and Ontario and its effect to Metropoliation Buffalo and Rochester along with the eastern cities on the eastern end of Lake Ontario. Background study. The scientific explanations advanced about lake effect snow is cold air masses that originate from Canada have low water content which is warmed up and moistened as it passes over the Great lakes thereby creating lower atmospheric instability and upward motion.   As a result, friction between the down winds land surfaces, upslope flow of winds cause boundary layer turbulence, and hence the LES (Dewey 1979).   Lake effect snow is used to describe snowfall that occurs during the winter months and falls due to the mixture of cold air and warm air from lakes as winds cross over water masses of the great lakes. (Niziol, 1987) The manifestation of this contact between cold occurs in localized manner. This is because the snowfalls are not wind driven.   Thus, it is possible to find clear skies in one area surrounding great lakes and another covered with heavy snow downpour.   It is crucial for residents of area surrounding great lakes to be able to predict when a snow burst is likely to strike. Although nature can be difficult to predict, climatologic have made some headways into techniques useful for prediction purposes say. Studying synoptic scale weather pattern, study of temperature of water surfaces wind direction and speed changes in wind direction with height and so on. The visible effect of these IES is heavy snowfall in surrounding areas of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario.   It winter periods, the areas around these great lakes can experience a one-day snowfall of up to 175 cm deep or 300cm on a span of five days.   In extreme cases 1200 cm, deep snow has been reported in areas like New York (Dewey, 1979).   Wintertime in these areas is often a disaster due to the dramatic results of lake effect snowfall. Meteorologists have expressed concern over increase of lake effect snowfall in areas surrounding Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Leather et al (1996) proposes that 30% to 60% of the increased instance of lake enhance snowfall increase has accrued from increased frequency of synoptic weather that is conducive for lake effect snowfall in cities east of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. However, the proposal advanced by leather is elusive because it does not submit the reason behind the rise of synoptic weather in the first place.   As seen in the formation of lakes effect lakes have a profound influence an adding to the amount of snow fall lake Ontario is a huge water mass and he warm air that rises and the moisture content from it also contributes to rise in lake effect snowfall.   In order to evaluate the extent of the effect of lake effect snow in cities east of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie it is important to have sufficient data to support it Data and methodology This project focuses on the areas east of Lake Ontario and Erie as well as Buffalo and Rochester.   In order to get the relevant data, a sample of 300 metrological stations located in these areas will be used. The stations for the sample will be ones that have weather records dating back to 30 to 40 years ago.   The records must be accurate and documented on a monthly basis.   The methodology of data collection shall be interviews with residents of cities around great lakes east of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie.   The purpose behind interviewing them is to get a feel of how they experience the dramatic effects of lake snow effect. The sample selection methodology will be selective meaning only resident who have linked in the cities for more than 30 years.   The meteorological departments will be chosen in each city east of the lakes Ontario and Erie because different cities experience lake effect snowfalls at varied degree. Data collected by the NOAA will be considered. Recordings of wind speeds collected in the past 30-40 years will also be crucial. On average snow effect, snow occurs during months of November through to April. The frequency of snowfall has increased while the rainfall frequency has declined in the past 30 years dating back to 1970 thrugh to 2001. The data from NOAA also shows that the intensity of snowfall has risen owing to the increased events of precipitation. Data will be from metrological stations and key components that will be looked for are total cold season snowfall values collected over the period stated, statistic on the negative impacts of increased lake effect snowfall in areas east side of lake Ontario and lake Erie, documented changes in weather climate and precipitation sped and so on.   Evaluation of the data will use simple arithmetic methods such as mean modes standard deviations correlation and variance. These evaluations will help to better interpret the results and findings from the research.   For instance, mean temperature throughout a month relationship between snowfall and temperature average snowfall experienced during autumn and winter days, deviation of temperatures from recorded mean temperatures. The mode will equally help to determine the frequency of a heavy lake effect snowfall over a 5-year interval in order to see if there is any consistent pattern followed by the lake effect snowfalls. In order to establish to correlation between increase in temperatures water vaporization and the increase in lake effect snowfall in east cities of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, models such as regression model ANOVA models CHI-SQ, students T distribution techniques will be utilized.   These models will come in handy when measuring my analysis degree of accuracy at significant confidence levels.   A time series of the occurrence of changes in weather and lake effect snowfall will be observed. REFERENCES Braham, R. R., and R. D. Kelly, 1982: Lake-effect snowstorms on Lake Michigan, USA. Cloud Dynamics, E. M. Agee and T. Asai, Eds., D. Reidel, 87–101. Dewey, K. F., 1977: Lake-effect snowstorms and the record breaking 1976–77 snowfall to the lee of Lakes Erie and Ontario. Weatherwise, 30, 228–231. Leathers, D. J., and A. W. Ellis, 1996: Synoptic mechanisms associated with snowfall increases to the lee of Lakes Erie and Ontario. Int. J. Climatol., 16, 1117–1135. Niziol, T.A., 1982: A record setting lake effect snowstorm at buffalo NY. Natl. Wea.Dig., 7(4), 19-24. Rosenfeld, D., 2000: Suppression of rain and snow by urban and Industrial air pollution. Science, 287, 1793–1796. How to cite Lake effect snow in areas east of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, Essay examples

Assessable Income and Related Liability Business Entities

Question: Describe about the Assessable Income and Related Liability for Business Entities. Answer: Issue The core issue in the given case is to determine the assessable income and related liability for namely three entities i.e. Stephanie, Ronald and Rogan Advertisement. Rule Tax Residency of Individuals The first step to determine the assessable income of the concerned taxpayer is to ascertain the underlying tax residency since Section 6-5(2), ITAA 1997[1] prescribes that only for tax residents of Australia would the income from abroad be also contribute towards assessable income while Section 6-5(3), ITAA 1997[2] prohibits the same for foreign tax residents. For individuals, the various residency tests are elaborated by the tax ruing TR 98/17. As per this ruling, there are namely four tests and if the taxpayer could satisfy one of these tests, he/she would be successful in being classified as an Australian tax resident[3]. The relevant details of the various residency tests are highlighted as follows. Domicile Test This particular test is applicable for tax residency determination of Australian domicile holders or Australian residents who have to spend a major portion of the time on foreign soil. The two conditions that need to be complied with by the concerned taxpayer are given below[4]. Possession of Australian domicile at the assessment time which should be congruent with Domicile Act 1982. Location of permanent abode to be situated in Australia only. The domicile condition can be objectively determined; the same cannot be opined in the context of determination of permanent abode location. In this particular endeavour, the tax ruling IT 2650 offers insight with regards to the factors that are considered vital[5]. The intention of the taxpayer to set up permanent residence in foreign land. The duration of foreign stay expected and the duration actual stayed and the underlying explanation for the variation. The extent of ties (personal, professional) maintained in Australia and visit frequency to Australia. Resides Test The tax residency determination of foreign residents is carried out using this test. In this regard, the pivotal factors that are taken into regards for decision making are enumerated as follows[6]. The main purpose of the taxpayers Australian visit. Level of ties in profession, personal sphere that the taxpayer boasts in Australia The characteristics such as duration ,reason and frequency of trips made to the country or origin Social arrangements that the taxpayer has forged while staying in Australia. 183 Day Test Another residency test for foreign residents tax is 183 day test. It primarily requires the underlying taxpayer to comply with the following two conditions[7]. Atleast a stay of 183 days in Australia whether on continuous or intermittent basis Clear indication on the end of taxpayer with regards to long term settlement plan in Australia. The test would be passed only if the taxpayer complies with both the conditions highlighted above. Superannuation Test A selective test which has utility only for the government employees working abroad whose tax residency is linked to contribution made to select superannuation scheme[8]. Tax Residency of company For any given company to be categorised as a tax resident, it is imperative that one of the terms mentioned below are fulfilled[9]. The companys incorporation must be carried out in Australia. The firms business should be Australia based and the firms majority shareholding should be with be with Australian tax residents or the control of management must rest in Australia. Source of Income Assessable income may be derived under the ambit of the following two sections. Section 6(5) This caters to income as per the ordinary income concepts and primarily comprises of the following three payments[10]. Business Income by carrying on a business activity Personal service income through employment or providing other services. Income on investment in the form of rent, dividends and interest. Section 15(15) Any profit that the underlying taxpayer derives carrying out an isolated transaction with profit making intent[11]. Application Tax Residency Status With regards to determination of tax residency of Stephanie and Ronald, from the above residency tests that have been listed, the test that has relevance is Domicile test since both are Australian residents. Further, the relevant facts are summarised as follows. The couple at the end of FY2015 move to Brazil to fulfil their professional obligations with an expected return to take place by October November 2016. They have a joint house in Australia which remains leased during their stay in Brazil. The fortunes of the business (i.e. Rogan Advertising) are highly driven by Stephanie and also the couple expect to come back once professional obligations finished. For payment of salary, a joint account is opened in Brazil while the payment derived from house lease is credited into the joint bank account in Australia. As per IT 2650, a stay on foreign land for a period which does not exceed two years essentially is referred to as being temporary in nature. In case of the couple, it is lesser than 2 years. Further, the couple continue to main residence in Australia along with the joint bank account. Besides, they intend to return back from Brazil and aim to finds a healthy business. Hence, going by the assumption that the expected return time does actually materialise, then it would be fair to assume that both Stephanie and Ronald would be classified as tax residents of Australia for both FY2016 and FY2017. In relation to Rogan Advertisement, the Australian tax resident would be confirmed for both years since the company seems to be incorporated in Australia and besides that its primary business is based in Australia. Also, the owners are Australian tax residents. Assessable Income STEPHANIE In accordance with the discussion in the previous section, the assessable income computation is shown below. Section 6(5) Ordinary Income Income from personal exertion Annual salary from Rogan Advertising = $ 80,000 Considering that Stephanie is an Australian tax residents for both years, income from foreign source is also assessable (Section 6-5(2)). Income from lectures ($ 24,000) is linked to Stephanies professional skills as an advertiser and owner of a business and this would be attributed to in this section. Income from investment in property Rent income (Lease payments) assuming that share of both Stephanie and Ronald is 50% each = (450/2)*52 = $ 11,700 Further, based on underlying rate and balances, rent income to the extent of 50% from joint accounts in Australia and Brazil would also contribute to assessable income (Due to information not being given, for both years these are assumed to be zero). Also, unfranked dividends payable by Rogan advertisement from the remaining profits would be assessable (For both years these are assumed to be zero). Hence, assessable income (FY2016) = 80000 + 11700 + 24000 (Assuming lectures in FY2016) = $ 115,700 Further, assessable income (FY2017) = 80000 + 17*(450/2) (assuming that return date of couple to their Australian house is October 31, 2016) = $ 83,825 ROGER In accordance with the discussion in the previous section, the assessable income computation is shown below. Section 6(5) Ordinary Income Income from personal exertion Annual salary from Rogan Advertising = $ 80,000 Income from investment in property Rent income (Lease payments) assuming that share of both Stephanie and Ronald is 50% each = (450/2)*52 = $ 11,700 Further, based on underlying rate and balances, rent income to the extent of 50% from joint accounts in Australia and Brazil would also contribute to assessable income (Due to information not being given, for both years these are assumed to be zero). Also, un-franked dividends payable by Rogan advertisement from the remaining profits would be assessable (For both years these are assumed to be zero). Hence, assessable income (FY2016) = 80000 + 11700 = $ 91,700 Further, assessable income (FY2017) = 80000 + 17*(450/2) (assuming that return date of couple to their Australian house is October 31, 2016) = $ 83,825 ROGAN ADVERTISING As the details about firms revenue and operating expenses are not stated, hence the assessable income of the company cannot be determined. Thus, it has been assumed that the company breaks even and hence no un-franked dividends are passed on to Stephanie and Ronald. Conclusion In wake of the discussion carried above, there is lack of information which prohibits the taxable income calculation for the entities given. Following incremental information is desired. Actual return of Stephanie and Ronald to Australia for determination of tax residency (Both years) and lease payments on house for FY2017. Amount of interest earned in various banks accounts for calculation of assessable income for both Stephanie and Ronald (FY2016 and FY2017). Audited financial statements for Rogan Advertisement to determine taxable income along with quantum of dividend paid to Stephanie and Ronald (FY2016 and FY2017). Exact dates when lectures were held by Stephanie in Brazil to ascertain whether the proceeds would be realised in FY2016 or FY2017. The level of ownership in the house for Stephanie and Roger to determine the division of lease payment income between the two (FY2016 and FY2017). References ATO, TR 98/17 (25 November, 1998) https://law.ato.gov.au/atolaw/view.htm?Docid=TXR/TR9817/NAT/ATO/00001 ATO, Taxation Ruling IT 2650 (8 August, 1991) https://law.ato.gov.au/atolaw/view.htm?docid=ITR/IT2650/NAT/ATO/00001 ATO, Companies (27 May, 2013) https://www.ato.gov.au/Business/Starting-your-own-business/In-detail/Getting-started/Residency-requirements-for-companies,-corporate-limited-partnerships-and-trusts/?page=2#Companies ATO, Residency the resides test, https://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/International-tax-for-individuals/In-detail/Residency/Residency---the-resides-test/ AusTax, Residency Status- Arrival in Australia, https://austaxpbr.com.au/document/PBR_17804 Austlii, Income Tax Assessment Act 1997- Section6-5, https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/itaa1997240/s6.5.html Austlii, INCOME TAX ASSESSMENT ACT 1997 - SECT 15.15, https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/itaa1997240/s15.15.html

Ozone Layer Solid Research Essays - Ozone Depletion,

Ozone Layer Solid Research Subject: TABLE OF CONTENTS How to get this FAQ Copyright Statement General remarks Caveats, Disclaimers, and Contact Information TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. THE STRATOSPHERE 1.1) What is the stratosphere? 1.2) How is the composition of air described? 1.3) How does the composition of the atmosphere change with 2. THE OZONE LAYER 2.1) How is ozone created? 2.2) How much ozone is in the layer, and what is a 2.3) How is ozone distributed in the stratosphere? 2.4) How does the ozone layer work? 2.5) What sorts of natural variations does the ozone layer show? 2.5.a) Regional and Seasonal Variation 2.5.b) Year-to-year variations. 2.6) What are CFC's? 2.7) How do CFC's destroy ozone? 2.8) What is an Ozone Depletion Potential? 2.9) What about HCFC's and HFC's? Do they destroy ozone? 2.10) *IS* the ozone layer getting thinner? 2.11) Is the middle-latitude ozone loss due to CFC emissions? 2.12) If the ozone is lost, won't the UV light just penetrate 2.13) Do Space Shuttle launches damage the ozone layer? 2.14) Will commercial supersonic aircraft damage the ozone layer? 2.15) What is being done about ozone depletion? 3. REFERENCES FOR PART I Introductory Reading Books and Review Articles More Specialized References Internet Resources ----------------------------- Subject: 1. THE STRATOSPHERE ----------------------------- Subject: 1.1) What is the stratosphere? The stratosphere extends from about 15 km to 50 km. In the stratosphere temperature _increases_ with altitude, due to the absorption of UV light by oxygen and ozone. This creates a global inversion layer which impedes vertical motion into and within the stratosphere - since warmer air lies above colder air, convection is inhibited. The word stratosphere is related to the word stratification or layering. The stratosphere is often compared to the troposphere, which is the atmosphere below about 15 km. The boundary - called the tropopause - between these regions is quite sharp, but its precise location varies between ~9 and ~18 km, depending upon latitude and season. The prefix tropo refers to change: the troposphere is the part of the atmosphere in which weather occurs. This results in rapid mixing of tropospheric air. [Wayne] [Wallace and Hobbs] Above the stratosphere lie the mesosphere, ranging from ~50 to ~100 km, in which temperature decreases with altitude; the thermosphere, ~100-400 km, in which temperature increases with altitude again, and the exosphere, beyond ~400 km, which fades into the background of interplanetary space. In the upper mesosphere and thermosphere electrons and ions are abundant, so these regions are also referred to as the ionosphere. In technical literature the term lower atmosphere is synonymous with the troposphere, middle atmosphere refers to the stratosphere and mesosphere, while upper atmosphere is usually reserved for the thermosphere and exosphere. This usage is not universal, however, and one occasionally sees the term upper atmosphere used to describe everything above the troposphere (for example, in NASA's Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite, UARS.) ----------------------------- Subject: 1.2) How is the composition of air described? (Or, what is a 'mixing ratio'?) The density of the air in the atmosphere depends upon altitude, and in a complicated way because the temperature also varies with altitude. It is therefore awkward to report concentrations of atmospheric species in units like g/cc or molecules/cc. Instead, it is convenient to report the mole fraction, the relative number of molecules of a given type in an air sample. Atmospheric scientists usually call a mole fraction a mixing ratio. Typical units for mixing ratios are parts-per-million, billion, or trillion by volume, designated as ppmv, ppbv, and pptv respectively. (The expression by volume reflects Avogadro's Law - for an ideal gas mixture, equal volumes contain equal numbers of molecules - and serves to distinguish mixing ratios from mass fractions which are given as parts-per-million by weight.) Thus when someone says the mixing ratio of hydrogen chloride at 3 km is 0.1 ppbv, he means that 1 out of every 10 billion molecules in an air sample collected at that altitude will be an HCl molecule. [Wayne] [Graedel and Crutzen] ----------------------------- Subject: 1.3) How does the composition of the atmosphere change with altitude? (Or, how can CFC's get up to the stratosphere when they are heavier than air?) In the earth's troposphere and stratosphere, most _stable_ chemical species are well-mixed - their mixing ratios are independent of altitude. If a species' mixing ratio changes with altitude, some kind of physical or chemical transformation is taking place. That last statement may seem surprising - one might expect the heavier molecules to dominate at lower altitudes. The mixing ratio of Krypton (mass 84), then, would decrease with altitude, while that of Helium (mass 4) would increase. In reality, however, molecules do not segregate by weight in

The first group of European essays

The first group of European essays This is characteristic mostly of new constitutions that deliberately try to adopt the generally accepted standards of the Rule of Law and constitutionalism. The German Basic Law can be considered an example of this effort and philosophy, and for the moment is the only Western constitution examined here that explicitly states the principle of separation of powers. Article 20, section 2 of the Basic Law says: All State power emanates from the people. It shall be exercised by the people by means of elections and voting and by specific legislative, executive and judicial organs. The philosophy of the German Basic Law and this is common with other European constitutions is built upon the following postulates: 1. The people is the holder of the whole State power. 2. The State power forms a unity4, and is indivisible. 3. The principle of separation of powers outlines and determines the organization and content of the exercise of State power. 4. The former premises result from the democratic principle under this principle the separation of powers does not divide State power into branches of different origin, it marks only the different functions of the unified power according to the Constitutional Court, it is an organizational and functional principle.5 Constitutions of some former socialist countries expressly state the principle of separation of powers presumably as a reaction to the previous ideology which rejected the idea of separation of powers, and as an expression of commitment to Western standards of constitutionalism. Russia is a good example of this argument. According to Marxist-Leninist doctrine all powers were concentrated in the hands of the soviets. In 1992, after the Soviet Union fell apart, the principle of separation of powers was added to the text of the old Constitution as a foundation of the new constitutional regime. This led to a discrepancy between...

Lies My Teacher Told Me Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Lies My Teacher Told Me - Assignment Example The true celebration was not for founding America, but from massacring natives.The first impact was the plague. Diseases from European animals like cowpox becoming smallpox, chickenpox, and other diseases. This created a plague that killed the Anishinaabe. The second impact was the taking of land. Land and resources once available became unavailable due to the settlers fences, armies, and settlements. Finally, another impact was the loss of life and freedom. Natives were enslaved or massacred. The Wampanoag people allied with the pilgrims due to the weakening of the tribe due to the plaque. After losing so many tribe members, the Wampanoag leader wanted to have help from other native tribes. He was especially concerned about the Narragansetts in the west. However, the Wampanoag tribe was decimated by a fresh outbreak of smallpox. By the time the tribe recovered a little bit, the settlers had taken over the land and villages once inhabited by the natives. The main difference between the natives and European worldviews was regarding nature. The Europeans believed territories and lands were made to conquer. Europeans did not just believe the land was to conquer but to be exploited as well. Gold, timber, sugar, crops, and other things could be mined from the new land. The natives believed that they did not own the land. They took what was needed, but left the rest. Europeans wanted dominance over nature. That was what man was put on Earth for. The natives did not want dominance, but peace with nature. This was the main difference between the two peoples.

In Bruges Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

In Bruges - Essay Example While following orders to kill the priest, Ray accidentally shoots a young boy killing him. Harry sends Ken and Ray to for hiding in Bruges. Here, they have to wait for further instructions. One night the two men went out to explore the city. They witness a film shoot where a dwarf actor is involved. This seems to amuse Ray. He engages in romance with a drug dealer, Chloe, the assistant producer of the shooting film. Her ex-boyfriend, Eirik, appears and threatens to shoot Ray. Ray disarms and discharges the gun in the man’s face. Later Chloe discloses that she seduces tourists after which they would rob them Ken receives a call from Harry commanding him to kill Ray. Harry says that the purpose of sending them to Bruge was because he wanted Ray to have a good moment before dying. Ken is reluctant about killing Ray. When he tries to kill him, Ray tries to shoot himself but Ken stops him. Ken suggests that Ray should leave Bruges. He tries to escape but a couple he had assaulted spots him. Ken and Harry meet, and he tries to convince Harry to forgive Ray. Filled with rage Harry shoots Ken on the leg and goes ahead to kill Ray. He shoots Ray after he left leaves the building. He also hits the dwarf actor in the process. After knowing that he had killed the child, he kills himself. Roy hopes to live so that he can face the parents of the kid he killed for judgment. The writer does not show out clearly whether the film is a comedy or a tragedy. For example, Ray and Ken chanced a shooting film with a dwarf character. It is also thrilling where gangsters seem sympathetic. Harry, who kills himself after knowing that he had killed a boy, portrays it. On the other hand, there are planed killings. Harry orders Ken to kill Ray, and he shoots Ray in the attempt of killing him. The film is different from other films in that in other films; characters manage to rescue their counterparts from

Territorial Expansion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Territorial Expansion - Essay Example The independent state of Texas had planned its fate from a long time that it would be annexed with the US, despite Mexican’s continual threads to stop this political thinking by the use of force. Congress approved the annexation of Texas on February 28, 1845. In 1937, an early time in the US history, White House made attempts to annex Taxis within the US domain. As soon as this news gained some momentum, rationalist groups started to protest against it. Down with strong frustrated resistance to adding slave states as a part of the United States. In a matter of time the socialist and political thinking went in the favor of Texas as soon as James Polk won the elections of 1844 in Texas. And finally, on Dec 29, 1845 Texas was annexed as a part of US territory. The growing conflicts between the US and Mexico led to a war between the two. There was no way for Mexico win over the US, and it lost wretchedly. Once the US occupied Texas, they opened it for the US civilians. What were t he short-term consequences of the acquisition of this particular territory? The immediate consequence of annexation of Texas was that as soon as Texas gained the authority of a state, Mexico cancelled all the diplomatic relationships with the US. The United States always claimed that the border of Texas was stretched all the way from Rio de Genera’ do, quoting the 1836 Treaties of Velasco. ... The primary battles of the combat were fought in Texas in which US was victorious. After these crucial victories, the United States marched into Mexican territory, finishing the clash in Texas. After the annexation, Stephen Austin took control and under his commands the Texas community flourished. He insisted the American immigrants to abide the law. In a short time of a decade, Texas population increased by 1500 inhabitants. Some of the immigrants were traitors, with a variety of legal complexity. It was not astonishing that the Mexican administration ultimately came to believe the Texans’, as they were named at the time, â€Å"a crowd of infamous crooks,† even though the majority was well-mannered natives. Texas was incredibly of a safe haven for the US citizens who had motive to leave house. One of the initially hard tasks for the Texans’ was that they lacked resources. But still they were always willing to fight with Mexico. Following a few concise combats, M exican ruler Santa Anna individually led a militia of several thousand fine skilled troops into Texas to put down the revolution. The Texas armed forces, which never figured further than 800, had slight experience in war. Therefore, they experienced an intimidating task. The analysis at that time of some 300 Texans’ employees, set as capitalists, executives, laborers, and wide-ranging service workers, disclose that the consequential work strength included, Americans, Europeans, and Indians. This combination went unsuccessful to even out this isolated area, which was deficient in formal, communal, political, and financial association. Texas rustlers caused anarchy. Deprived supervision ended in overstocking, and lack of care commenced critical diseases. But these

Source Of Errors In Language Learning Research English Language Essay

Source Of Errors In Language Learning Research English Language Essay Introduction Errors are integral part of language acquisition. The phenomenon of error has long interested SLA researchers. In a traditional second language teaching situation, they are regarded as the linguistic phenomena deviant from the language rules and standard usages, reflecting learners deficiency in language competence and acquisition device. Many teachers simply correct individual errors as they occur, with little attempt to see patterns of errors or to seek causes in anything other than learner ignorance. Presently, however, with the development of linguistics, applied linguists, psychology and other relevant subjects, peoples attitude toward errors changed greatly. Instead of being problem to be overcome or evils to be eradicated, errors are believed to be evidence of the learners stages in their target language (TL) development. It is through analyzing learner errors that errors are elevated from the statue of undesirability to that of a guide to the inner working of the language lea rning process (Ellis, 1985,p 53) In the field of SLA, there have been three influential approaches to errors with a general movement from approaches emphasizing the product, the error itself, to approaches focusing on the underlying process under which the errors are made. The analysis of error sources has been regarded as a central aspect in the study of learner errors. Researchers believe that the clearer the understanding of the sources of learners errors, the better second language teachers will be able to detect the process of L2 learning. Error Making errors is the most natural thing in the world and it is evidently attached to the human beings. But, how do we define error? There are different definitions of the word as Ellis explains learners make errors in both comprehension and production, the first being rather scantly investigated. All learners make errors which have a different name according to the group committing the error. Childrens errors have been seen as transitional forms, the native speakers ones are called slips of the tongue and the second language errors are considered unwanted forms (George 1972). We use the term error to refer to a systematic deviation from a selected norm or set of norms. According to Lennon (1991) an error is a linguistic form or combination of forms which in the same context and under similar conditions of production would, in all likelihood, not be produced by the speakers native speakers counterparts. On one hand, it was considered to be a sign of inadequacy of the teaching techniques, something negative which must be avoided, and on the other hand it was seen as a natural result of the fact that since by nature we cant avoid making errors, we should accept the reality and try to deal with them. The error-as-progress conception is based on the Chomskys idea that a child generates language through innate universal structures. So, using this symbolic code, one can have access to different pieces of knowledge not as something mechanically learned but as mentally constructed through try and error. The idea is now that the second language learners form hypotheses about the rules to be formed in the target language and then test them out against input data and modify them accordingly. There is an approach which concerns error as being the result of social-cognitive interaction. This means that the error implicitly carries a social norm as well as cognitive process. The error also carries a social and cultural component which makes it different in different societies. Cultural differences in the error Previous research has shown that cultural differences exist in the susceptibility of making fundamental attribution error: people from individualistic cultures are prone to the error while people from collectivistic cultures commit less of it (Miller, 1984). It has been found that there is a differential attention to social factors between independent peoples and interdependent peoples in both social and nonsocial contexts: Masuda and his colleagues (2004) in their cartoon figure presentation experiment showed that Japaneses judgments on the target characters facial expression are more influenced by surrounding faces than those of the Americans; whereas Masuda and Nisbett (2001) concluded from their underwater scenes animated cartoon experiment that Americans are also more likely than Japanese participants to mark references to focal objects (i.e. fish) instead of contexts (i.e. rocks and plants). These discrepancies in the salience of different factors to people from different cultu res suggest that Asians tend to attribute behavior to situation while Westerners attribute the same behavior to the actor. Consistently, Morris Peng (1994) found from their fish behavior attribution experiment that more American than Chinese participants perceive the behavior (e.g. an individual fish swimming in front of a group of fish) as internally rather than externally caused. One explanation for this difference in attribution lies in the way people of different cultural orientation perceive themselves in the environment. Particularly, Markus and Kitayama (1991) mentioned how (individualistic) Westerners tend to see themselves as independent agents and therefore prone themselves to individual objects rather than contextual details. in the second language teaching/ learning process the error has always been regarded as one of the most generally known approaches concerning the error throughout human history is to consider it a negative effect or result, even worth to be punished. According to Corder (1967): A learners errors then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using. They are significant in three different ways: first to the teacher, in that they tell him is he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed. Second, they provide the researchers with evidence of how language is learned or acquired. Third they are indispensible to the learner himself because he can regard the making of errors as a device used in order to learn. The sources of error might be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, epistemic or residing in the discourse structures. Richards(1971),when trying to identify the causes of competence errors he came up with three types of errors: interference errors, which reflect the use of elements from one language to the other, intralingual errors, subdivided into errors due to overgeneralization, or to ignorance of rules restriction, which is incomplete application of the rules, or finally due to the false concept hypothesis, which demonstrate the general characteristics of rule learning and third developmental errors when the learner builds hypothesis about the target language based on limited experience. Assuming a term hierarchy of errors, Burt and Kiparasky (1974) suggest that there is a difference between global and local errors. They say: Global mistakes are those that violate rules involving the overall structure of a sentence, the relations among constituent clauses, or, in a simple sentence, the relations among major constituents. Local mistakes cause trouble in a particular constituent, or in clause of a complex sentence. They claim that global errors are more serious and rank higher in the error hierarchy than local ones, and they should be corrected prior to all others in language classrooms. Accordingly, errors in tense and aspect are regarded as local errors. They may be minor errors, for they may not cause grave breakdowns in communication. However, they are extremely common mistakes among second language learners of English and very much worth investigating since tense and aspect represent one of the most essential parts of English grammar. Corder (1967) goes a step further to propose different terminologies for these two kinds of errors and stresses that we must make a clear distinction between mistakes and errors; the former refers to non-systematic performance errors of chance circumstances, whereas the latter can be defined as the systematic errors of the learner from which we are able to reconstruct his knowledge of the language to date. In the following discussion, the analysis focuses on competence errors: There are two major approaches to analyzing errors committed by a target language learner. Contrastive Analysis (CA), Error Analysis (EA). Theoretical base of CA lies in Behaviorist Learning Theory; while the EA is closely related with the emergence of Interlanguage Theory (Ellis, 2005) Behaviorist learning theory accounts of errors: The behaviorist learning theory illustrates the TL learning is a mechanical process of habit formation. Habits entail over-learning, which ensures that learning of new habits as a result of proactive inhibition. Thus, the challenge facing the L2 learner is to overcome the interference of L1 habits. Basing on the habit formation, contrastive analysis sought to identify the features of the L2 that differed from those of the L1 so that learners could be helped to form the new habits of the L2 by practicing them intensively. Most errors made by L2 learners were the result of differences between L1 and L2 structure. (Martin 1996) Interference, the CA insists, is the result of unfamiliarity with the rules of a TL and psychological causes, such as inadequate learning (Swan, 2001). Transfer can be positive or negative: linguistic features of the L1 that are similar to those of the TL will facilitate learning (positive transfer); those aspects of the L1 that are different to the TL grammatical and phonological system will hinder SLA and cause the learner to make numerous production errors(negative transfer). Thus difference between the L1 and L2 create learning difficulty which results in errors, while the similarities between them facilitate rapid and easy learning (Ellis, 1985 cited Corder). According to behaviorist learning theory, both types of transfer are the outcome of automatic and subconscious use of old habits in new learning situations (Dulay, Burt Krashen) Rod Ellis (1985) assesses, errors, according to the theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning. By comparing the L1 with TL, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential errors. The idea of the error as an effect to be avoided has been especially supported by behaviorism, being considered an obstacle to language learning. To them error has been a symptom of ineffective teaching or as evidence of failure and they believed that when they occur they are to be remedied by provision of correct forms; that is to say, use of intensive drilling and over-teaching. It was also believed that interference takes place whenever there is a difference between native mother tongue and the target language. A hypothesis based on Lados suggestion in linguistic across cultures where he states in comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease all difficulties in foreign language learning (Lado, 1957) 2. Interlanguage (IL) theory accounts of errors (i) Selinker (1972) coined the term interlanguage to refer to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learners L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: To refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition To refer to the system that is observed at a single stage of development To refer to particular L1, L2 combinations. Other terms that refer to the same basic idea are approximate system and transitional competence. (ii) Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a language, whose errors are caused by several different processes. These include: Borrowing patterns from the mother tongue. Extending patterns from the target language Expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known from Richards, Jack et al (1992). (iii)Interlanguage refers to the separateness of a second language learners system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target language. Interlanguage is neither the system of target language nor the system of the native language, but instead falls between the two; it is a system based upon the best attempt of learners to provide order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding them. By gradual process of trial and error and hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer and closer approximations to the system used by native speakers of the language. (iv)Rod Ellis (2005, 54) views Error Analysis as being based on emergence of IL theory, that is known to be used to explain effectively the errors committed in SLA processes. Slinker (1972) tried to find a way to explain the errors that some students make, have nothing to do with their foreign language; for example a Spanish speaker, an Arabic speaker and a Japanese speaker might all make the same mistake in English which was not related to their respective languages. According to Slinker, L2 learners go through a process of making and testing hypotheses about the target language. They begin with knowledge about language in general, gained from their native language, and move toward the target language. Bit by bit, they readjust their mental model of the new language, improving their communicative competency in that language. Successful hypotheses become mental constructions that correspond to the rules of the new language. Brown(1993) viewed ,truly successful students make the journ ey to a high level of competency in the target language, while less successful students become fossilized somewhere along the IL continuum. For around 35 years Selinker has viewed learners errors as evidence of positive efforts by the learner to learn a new language. This view of language learning allowed for the possibilities of learners making deliberate attempts to control their own learning and, along with theories of cognitive processes in language learning. Errors are indispensable to learners since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn. A modern definition of language transfer is provided by Slinker (1992): language transfer is best thought of as a cover term for a whole class of behaviors, processes and constraints, each of which has to do with CLI (Cross Linguistic Influence), the influence and use of prior linguistic knowledge, usually but exclusively native language knowledge. Selinker (1992) pointed two highly significant con tributions that Corder made: that the errors of a learner, whether adult or child, are not random, but are in fact systematic and are not negative or interfering in any way with learning a TL but are, on the contrary, a necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypothesis. In 1994 Gass and Slinker defined errors as red flags that provide evidence of the learners knowledge of the second language. The learners developing knowledge of second language may have characteristics of the learners native language, characteristics of the second language, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems. Interlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about the second language.L2 learners process through an interlanguage, which is an independent knowledge of L1 and L2 system. Interlanguage Is systematic, because the learner selects the rul es systematically, learners bases plans on the rule system, in the same way as the native speaker bases on the internalized knowledge of L1 system. (iv)One of the crucial contributions of IL was its underlying assumption that the learners knowledge is integrated and systematically reorganized with previous knowledge of the native language. By a gradual process of trial-and-error or hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer approximations to the system used by the native speaker of the language. The characteristics of IL are described by many researchers as follows: Permeable, in the sense that rules that constitute the learners knowledge at any one stage are not fixed, but are open to amendment(Ellis1985:50) Dynamic, in the sense that L2 learner slowly revises their variable interim systems to accommodate new hypothesis about the TL system. Systematic, in that L2 learners IL is rule-governed, that is, the learner bases his performance plans on his existing rule system much the same way as the native speaker bases his plans on his internalized knowledge of the L1 system. The variable shape of interlanguage The concept of interlanguage has had a major impact on the field of second language acquisition, studies on interlanguage focus on the linguistic and psychological aspects of second language acquisition research. I will first outline how the interlanguage assumption developed .since the interlanguage concept is not only important for the development of the students grammar system; I will then explore how it applies to other components of language. I will also focus on the consequences of the concept for the teacher and his work in the classroom. Before the 1960s language was not considered to be a mental phenomenon. Like other forms of human behavior language is learnt by processes of habit formation. A child learns his mother tongue by imitating the sounds and patterns he hears around him. By approval or disapproval, adults reinforce the childs attempts and lead the efforts to the correct forms. Under the influence of cognitive linguists this explanation of first language acquisitio n was criticized. Language cant be verbal behavior only since children are able to produce an infinite number of utterances that have never heard before. This creativity is only possible because a child develops a system of rules. A large number of studies have shown that children actually do construct their own rule system, which develops gradually until it corresponds to the system of the adults. There is also evidence that they pass through similar stages acquiring grammatical rules. Through the influence of cognitive linguists and first language acquisition research the notion developed that second language learners, too, could be viewed as actively constructing rules from the data they encounter and that they gradually adapt these rules in the direction of the target language. However wrong and inappropriate learners own language system, they are grammatical in their own terms, since they are a product of the learners own language system. This system gradually develops toward t he rule-system of the target language. The various shapes of the learners language competence are called interlanguage. This draws to the fact that the learners language system is neither that of his mother tongue nor that of the second language, but contains elements of both. Therefore, errors need not be seen as signs of failure only, but as evidence of the learners developing system. While the behaviorist approach led to teaching methods which use drills and consider errors as signs of failure, the concept of interlanguage liberated language teaching and paved the way for communicative teaching methods. Since errors are considered a reflection of the students temporary language system and therefore a natural part of the learning process, teachers could now use teaching activities which did not call for constant supervision of the students language. Group work and pair work became suitable means for language learning. A brief review of approaches to analyses of errors Contrastive Analysis (CA) Contrastive analysis is an approach generated from behaviorist learning theory. Through CA applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first and second languages to predict errors. The basic concept behind CA was that a structural picture of any language could be constructed which might then be used in direct comparison with the structural picture of another language. Through a process of mapping one system onto another, similarities and differences could be identified. Identifying the differences would lead to a better understanding of the problems that a learner of the particular L2 would face. (Corder , 1983). CA stresses the influence of mother tongue in learning a second language in phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactic levels. It holds that L2 would be affected by L1. Here, language is taken as a set of habits and learning as the establishment of new habits, a view sprung from behaviorism, under which langu age is essentially a system of habits. In the course of language learning, L1 learning habits will be transferred into L2 learning habits. Therefore, in the case of L1 transfer into L2, if structures in the MT have their corresponding structures in the TL and L1 habits can be successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully and that would result in positive transfer. Contrastively, in the case of negative transfer or interference, certain elements of the MT have no corresponding counterparts in the TL, L1 habits would cause errors in the L2 and learners would transfer inappropriate properties of L1. CA places the environment as the predominant factor in SLA, while learners are believed to play only a passive role in accepting the impositions of the environment. We must not forget that there are numbers of errors made by language learners seem to be unrelated to the learners na tive language. According to SLA researchers non-interference errors were more pervasive in learner performance than CA were ready to recognize. Dulay and Burt (1973) studied the errors made by Spanish-speaking children learning English as an L2 and claimed that all of the learners errors had collected, 85% were developmental (non-interference), 12% were unique and only 3% were results of L1 interference. Primary tenets of CA are: Prime cause of difficulty and error in foreign language learning is interference coming from the learners native language. Difficulties are chiefly due to differences between the two languages The greater the difference s, the more acute the learning difficulties will be The results of a comparison between the two languages are needed to predict th e difficulties and errors which will occur in learning the target language What needs to be taught is discovered by comparing the languages and subtracting what is common to them. (Corder, 1981) 3. Error analysis (EA) It is defined as the study of linguistics ignorance, the investigation of what people do not know and how they attempt to cope with their ignorance, by James (2001).Error analysis was first introduced by Fries (1945) and Lado (1957) who have claimed that foreign or second language learners errors could be predicted on the basis of the differences between the learners native and second languages. They have also suggested that where the aspects of the target language are similar to those of the learners native language, learning will be easy; otherwise, it will be difficult and second language learners are expected to make errors .The field of error analysis in SLA was established in the 1970s by S. P. Corder and colleagues. A widely-available survey can be found in chapter 8 of Brown (2000). Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first an d second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language. This is the examination of those errors committed by students in both the spoken and written medium. Corder, who has contributed enormously to EA, writes this: The study of error is part of the investigation of the process of language learning. In this respect it resembles methodologically the study of the acquisition of the mother tongue. It provides us with a picture of the linguistic development of a learner and may give us indications as the learning process. Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not. Corder(1967) made use of Chomskys the competence versus performance distinction by associating errors with failures in competence and mistakes with failures in performance. In his view, a mistake occurs as the results of processing limitations rather than lack of competence. It signifies L2 learners failure of utilizing their knowledge of a TL rule. They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as I angry are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may also be cl assified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, I angry would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent. From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems. In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making. Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not with learner reception (listening and reading). Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable. For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned. In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage. Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching. Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology. EA emphasizes on the significance of errors in learners IL system, Brown (1994) may be, carried out directly for pedagogic purposes. Carl James (1998) viewed, EA developed out of the belief that errors indicate the learners stage of language learning and acquisition.th learner is seen as an active participant in the development of hypotheses regarding the rules of the target language just as a young child learning the first language. Errors are considered to be evidence of the learners strategy as he or she builds competence in the target language. These errors are defined as global which inhibit understanding and local which do not interfere with communication. Error analysis has been criticized as being an inefficient tool for studying the way second language learners develop their target language. It is argued that error analysis deals with the learners productive competence rather than the receptive one, and it is also an imperfect instrument for categorizing errors and explaining them. In the book Error and Interlanguage written by Pit Corder, he stated that various classifications of these error systems have been developed by error analysis researchers, three of which can be helpful for the teacher and are as follows. Pre-systematic; errors occur before the language learner has realized any system for classifying items being learned; the learner can neither correct nor explain this type of error. Systematic; errors occur after the learner has noticed a system and error consistently occurs; learner can explain but not correct the error. This classification relies on three major groups: (1) interference errors; (2) intralingual errors; (3)development errors. Interference errors are caused by the influence of the native language, in presumably those areas where the languages differ markedly. Intralingual errors originate with the structure to TL itself. The complexity of language encourages over-generalization, incomplete application of rules, and the failure to learn conditions for rule application. Development errors reflect the students attempt to make hypotheses about the language from the native language. Post-systematic; errors occur when learner is consistent in his or her recognition of systems; can explain and correct the error. The following steps are distinguished in conducting an EA: collection of a sample of learner language; identification of errors; explanation of errors; error evaluation (Ellis cited in 2005) Richards (1971) focused on the intralingual and developmental errors observed in the acquisition of English as a second language and further classified them into four categories: (i) Overgeneralization; covering instances where the learners create a deviant structure on the basis of his experience of other structure of the TL. (ii)Ignorance of the rule restriction, occurring as a result of failure to observe the restrictions or existing structures (iii) Incomplete application of rules, arising when the learners fail to fully develop a certain structure required to produce acceptable sentences (iv) False concepts hypothesized, deriving from faulty comprehension of distinctions in the TL. from the analyses of errors to the practice of error correction We know that in traditional classroom instruction is laid on accuracy, errors frequently corrected because the teacher thinks the error as a thorn in his/her flesh. Yet with the understanding of IL theory, the role of error correction has changed. Errors are considered natural products in language learning and in fact reflect the modes of learners developing system. What are the sources and causes of Errors? The following factors are identified as the source and causes of Errors Mother tongue interference Wilkins (1972) observes: When learning a foreign language an individual already knows his mother tongue, and it is this which he attempts to transfer. The transfer may prove to be justified because the structure of the two languages is similar-in that case we get positive transfer or facilitation- or may prove unjustified because the structure of the two languages are different- in that case we get negative transfer- or interference. Loan Words

Diary Of Hatchet Essay -- essays research papers

Diary of Hatchet Brian Robeson, the main character, is a very interesting kid. After the first few pages you could tell that he was strong-minded, twelve or thirteen year old kid. His parents were divorced and he spent some time with his dad. He lived far away so Brian had to take a plane. From the back of the book I knew that he gets in to a plane accident and has to survive on his own. I was surprised that the author went right to the plane wreck. I thought it would have a somewhat boring beginning like most other books I read. Brian keeps talking about how his parents got divorced and he cries every time he thinks about it. He calls it the big "secret." Brian keeps describing visions of his mom kissing some new man, not his father. You can tell that he takes the divorce very seriously and sometimes gets emotional. 10/05 In this part of the book, Jake, the pilot, has a heart attack and dies. To be honest, I, myself, have thought about what I would do if I was on plane and the pilot died. I really don't know what I would do, I don't know how to fly a plane. Luckily, Brian had been taught by Jake how to fly the plane. Brian didn't know how to land so he flew the plane into a lake. This part of the book was hard to believe, there was a lot of "coincidents." Brian showed his intellectual side when he realized that when Jake was suffering from his heart attack he turned the plane to the left. That could greatly increase the time it ...

College Life Essay

College is much different from my high school in so many ways. In my high school we was always on the same routine. We had four periods a day and first period started at 7:45 and we was on a block schedule meaning our classes was an hour and thirty minutes long. We had the same classes everyday so more learning during the day and less homework. Immediately after school we had football practice four days a week and played on Fridays. High school Is a good preparation for college, even though while in high school you will never expect what happens in college. In high school your parents were more involved in what go on in your daily life, whether you get in trouble in class or you get sick at lunch. College is an great experience I think everyone should have. In college you will learn responsibilities and how to take care of yourself. My life have change dramatically, went from seeing my family everyday to seeing them every three weeks maybe. The classes in college is much different than high school , there is no set schedule to do your homework or to study. This is where the responsible part come in, you are responsible whether you eat , sleep, study, have fun and even exercise. I didn’t mention being a student-athlete was hard as well, even though if I wasn’t an athlete I wouldn’t be a student. College not for everyone but if you have the opportunity at your grasp take advantage and make your family proud. Student-athletes have to set times like everyone else in college to complete there work and go to class but also they have to maintain there practice schedule daily. Being an athlete at Albany State is wonderful the fan base is so incredible and the odds are stack against us of making it pro. That’s why we are worked so hard and put to the test on the field and in the class room. Being a football player, practice start at 2:45 and end at 5:00 or so and some players have class after practice which is difficult to make some days but class is MANADTORY at Albany state. The coaches here are great and most of the coaches are alumni of this great school so they care about the organization deeply. Albany State Golden Rams is a Division ll power house which most teams underestimate and we show it to them on Saturdays. Here at Albany State Football players are respected not for what we do on the field but also of what we accomplish in the classrooms. I am very glad that I am able to attend Albany State University. Everything here is so overwhelming starting with The New Student Union Building . The food is amazing and the staff is amazing and caring. The games and the televisions are so entertaining and sitting in there is so relaxing and is a great study area. Campus life is the best of college experience meeting new people and socializing in the dorms. Here at Albany state are people that your going to be life long friends with. This campus is so secure thanks to the campus police. They are very concerned about the residents and love to protect and serve. If I had the choice to go to another institution I would not go Albany state is the life to live and the best college experience in the world. I appreciate what the staff, professors, coaches, police, RA’s , hall managers, and the Preside.

Racism Essays (1262 words) - Social Inequality, Discrimination

Racism Essays (1262 words) - Social Inequality, Discrimination Racism Racism is defined by the Webster Dictionary as the assumption that the characteristics and abilities of an individual are determined by race and that one race is biologically superior to another. Confronted with a problem as complex as racism, we cannot afford to let ourselves be constrained by the boundaries of specific disciplines. Racism is alive and well. The reports of its demise are totally unfounded so that we come to the beginning of the twenty-first century, it remains as our society's major dilemma. There is a lot at stake when dealing with this issue, but that fact is that we cannot brush it aside or ignore it any longer because it is present in everything we do. Canada and the United States are one of the two biggest countries when it comes to ethnic diversities within its boundaries. Immigrants enter these countries by the thousands to better their chances of a good and stable life. The demographic statistics of these countries are rapidly rising. Immigrants are starting to take over and their presence is being felt more and more. Historically, both countries had their respective problems involving other races. When the British settlers first came to Canada, they were confronted with the Native Americans. Their goal was to claim land for England, but they also had to convert the aboriginal to the Catholic religion. So against their will, the Native Americans were taught to worship a new God. The Whites were taking advantage of these primitive tribes living in and around the country. They played with their minds, giving them hard liquor, disguised as the Drink of Life. So the aboriginals were overwhelmed, and could not stop the invasion. They were defeated, forced to live in small territories, and some were turned into slaves. Americans were as bad, if not worst, toward racial groups. The most significant of the acts committed is the segregation of African American during the late eighteen hundreds until the mid-nineteen hundreds. Black people were brought from Africa and were auctioned to the highest bidder to work in the cotton fields. Their working conditions were atrocious and a lot of them died of hunger or sickness. It's not until the Civil War that the legal status of African Americans started to change. Even then, the Supreme Court of the United States struck down federal statutes designed to enforce the amendments. The absence of an adequate federal law permitted discrimination against black Americans in employment and housing, public accommodations, the judicial system, and voting opportunities. In the two historic events, the possible reason for the actions done toward the racial minorities might be the fear the have towards them. We did not understand why they were different from us, so we categorised them and immediately judged them as the inferior race. Even though the history of both nations was different, their actions against racial minorities were similar to one another. Throughout the years, it seems that Canadians and Americans have excepted their immigrant counterparts. In both Canada and the United States, a range of indicators of racial attitudes shows certain positive trends. In the United States, the National Academy of Sciences report, A Common Destiny: Blacks and American Society, gleaned data from dozen of national opinion polls conducted between 1942 and 1983. These polls show growing and now virtually universal verbal commitment to the principle of racial equality. The disparities between the Whites and the Blacks have declined significantly. In Canada, race is less conspicuous. Without doubt the climate in Canada too has improved since the Second World War, when racially exclusionary immigration policies were still in effect. For its study, The Economic and Social Impact of Immigration, the Economic Council of Canada assembled data from existing surveys of intolerance. The council reported a positive trend among anglophones on an index of tolerance. A survey conducted in 1990 by Decima Research Ltd. permits a comparison of the two countries. The Canadians in the survey were, overall, slightly less overtly racist than the Americans: 90 percent of Canadians and 86 percent of Americans agreed that all races are created equal (Maclean's, 1990). This difference is insubstantial. Large minorities in both countries deny overt racism. Canadians favour immigrations more than Americans do, despite the fact

Different Roles of Political Parties †Government Essay

Different Roles of Political Parties – Government Essay Free Online Research Papers Different Roles of Political Parties Government Essay In the United States, there are three major groups and they are: political party, interest group and lobbyist, and the media. These three main groups are important and each of them plays a different role. Also they can give a positive or a negative impact on the American Political System and on the people in the United States. One of the main groups is political party. A major political party can be defined as a group of people who seek in control of government through winning the election, and holding a public office but the minor party is different. Their role is to play â€Å"spoiler role† in an election and this party can also be useful as critic and innovators. This political party has five major functions, which are nominating, informer-stimulator, the Seal of Approval, governmental, and watchdog. During its nominating function, the political party nominates or names a candidate to represent their party. In the informer-stimulator function, they inform the people and stimulate their interests and participation in public affairs. During the Seal of Approval function, political party grants a seal of approval to its candidates who are both qualified and have good character. In the governmental function, the party governs government in the United States and most of their business is conducted on a partisan basis. The last role that political party has is watchdog function. This function allows the party to act as watchdogs over the conduct of the public’s business. These functions can give negative and/or positive impacts. In the United States, there are two major political parties, the Democrats and the Republicans. Some of aspects of the party’s campaigns can enforce a negative impact on people. Some of the negative impacts are that political parties are election-oriented not issue-oriented so they ignore issues and they just want people our votes to win public office. Another negative impact is that their minds are separated; they are interested in different interests and different ideas. Also these parties divide people in the United States and if these parties divide the country, some parts of the country will try to separate. In addition to that, they use our money to campaign, to inform, and etc; and they borrow money if they want to overuse money. Interest groups are the main group in the United States. Interest groups are the private organizations whose members share certain views and work to shape the making and the content of public policy. Also they are known as pressure group or special interest. Interest groups try to influence the policies of the government and they do strike on the one thing they focus on. This group gives a lot of positive impacts to America. These groups don’t seek for votes; they are only interested in influencing the policies of government and they help to stimulate the interests in public affairs. Also they provide useful specialized and detailed information to the government. In addition to that these groups provide checks and balances on each other and the behavior of officials in the government. Interest groups are mostly found in economic interest and they use propaganda, which is a technique of persuasion aimed at influencing individual or group behavior. Sometimes the lobbyist helps t he interest groups by lobbying. Lobbying is usually defined as those activities by which a group pressures are brought to hear on legislators and the legislative process and this helps the interest groups to take their interests or the issue that they focus on to the government. These interest groups seek to institute certain governments and public policies to benefit all or most of the people in the country. Another group in the United States is the media. The Media is TV, radio, films, books, magazines and newspapers. They provide political information. The Media has the power to focus the public attention on a particular issue and help to shape the public agenda-what people talk about. The Media is big and huge. They make candidates less dependent on parties and have changed the way people campaign, placing the emphasis more on the matters of style than on substances. These groups can give both negative and positive impacts. They can help to reach to many people, but can give a bad effect to certain people. Also the media spreads news and teach things. Also it can affect people by looking at things that they show and having their own opinion and view. Also the bad things about the media are that you cannot rely on it because not every single media group has the same point of view, they have different views and they can describe an issue or problem however they want. In conclusion, these three groups, political party, interest groups and lobbyist, and the media, play an important role in the American Political System but can give both negative and positive impacts to the people. But these groups can teach people and spread news even though they have negative impacts. In addition, they shape this country as the government listens to the people in the in the United States. Research Papers on Different Roles of Political Parties - Government EssayQuebec and CanadaRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2PETSTEL analysis of IndiaThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeTwilight of the UAW19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This Nice

Personal education utopia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Personal education utopia - Essay Example Rawls viewed education as an opportunity for people to progress and transform their lives and an egalitarian society would be the one, which would provide â€Å"equality of opportunity†. This would mean that every child, regardless of his or her background, race, cast, color, creed, language, culture, ethnicity, social class, and others (Levitas, pp. 87-89), would receive the same opportunity to educate him or her and stand in lines with other (Schubert, pp. 67-68). Important here to note is that this equality of opportunity would not only mean that state would take up the responsibility for the education of its students and would pay all the expenses in this regard but it would also mean that all the resources and tools which complement educational progress would also be divided equally. For example, children from poor families or lower middle class families fail to afford computer, continued internet access, educational gadgets, personal transport, access to libraries, abili ty to hire private tutors and others (Halpin, pp. 78-79).For example, no student would have the permission or access to come to school by his or her own car and everywhere would come through school bus. Important here to note is the fact that under education would no longer remain a choice for the governments. They will not be able to label educational spending as expenditure but as an investment, an ongoing investment, whose investment levels even the governments could not cut down (Winch & Gingell, pp. 13-14; Levitas, pp. 87-89).

3 key differences between managers and leaders Essay

3 key differences between managers and leaders - Essay Example Kotter asserts that when an individual is playing the role of a leader he comes up with new ideas and plans and persuades his/her followers into thinking about a future that is both positive and beneficial in nature (KOTTERMAN, 2006, p.15). A leader always has to keep his eyes open for opportunities and develop new techniques and strategies in accordance to these opportunities. On the contrary, a manager has the responsibility of maintaining how the organization is currently running and the culture that has been adopted by the organization. His main aim is to secure the organization’s bottom line and maintain discipline through his controlling role. According to Nicholaides’ research that the role of a leader is to inspire his/her followers to make them perform at their best and he is well aware of how follower’s pace of work can be increased (Nicolaides, 2010, p.32). He asserts that success in leadership is not dependent on what the individual leader does; it is rather dependant on what the followers do in response to a leader. On the other hand a manager is an individual who uses his control over the employees and subordinates by assisting them in developing their personal asserts and helping them in using their best talents. Any individual within the organization can become a leader, a leader’s power are not dependant on the position he is assigned to within the organization. For example: a leader can be an executive working in the information technology department. This is because he has expertise and information that nobody else within the organization has and in order to obtain his/her expertise, followers accept him/her as a leader. Stanley suggests that a manager obtains his power due to his/her management level position within the hierarchy of an organization (STANLEY, 2006, p.33). Grint asserts that even managers are followers of a leader as a leader creates the

Business strategy report of Vodafone Group PLC Dissertation

Business strategy report of Vodafone Group PLC - Dissertation Example On the basis of strategic management principles, the mission as well as vision of a business firm is formulated. On the further extent, various types of business strategies are formulated, evaluated and implemented on the basis of the principles of strategic management. This dissertation will concentrate on the strategic management of Vodafone Group PLC. The framework of the paper would not only discuss the various types of business strategies incorporated by the company, but would also focus on the new strategies that can be implemented by the firm in the next five years. The learnt from the paper would help the researcher to analyze the business strategies of the company in details. Industry Analysis The industry in which Vodafone PLC is situated is the telecommunications industry. This industry deals with providing long distance communication services through technological means. Till 1982, the telecommunication sector in United Kingdom was in the form of a public owned company named Post Office Telecommunication. The market structure of the broadcasting sector was duopoly in its nature. The two companies that had formed this duopoly were BBC and the Independent Broadcasting Authority. At this point of time, the mobile or internet services did not exist in the market. With time and development of science and technology, the telecommunication sector in U.K. had expanded. ... had expanded. At present, this industry is highly competitive in nature. Its retail sector is much bigger than that of many other industrial sectors. Companies in this sector in U.K. not only earns substantial amount of profit in terms of billion dollars, but also invest a considerable part of their revenue in research and development for new innovations (Papadopoulos, 2011). Profile of the Company Vodafone Group plc, also recognized as Vodafone, is a UK based global company which is involved in the commerce of providing telecommunication services. The corporation was founded in 1991 in Newbury, Berkshire, United Kingdom. However, the concern shifted its headquarters to London, United Kingdom. The ancestor of Vodafone was Racal Telecom (1983-1991). In stipulations of the total financial proceeds spawned as well as the strength of subscribers, the organization is considered as the second largest telecommunication company in the globe, following China Mobile. The company is present in almost 30 economies of the world and carries its business operations in 40 other nations with the help of its business partners. At present, the company is headed by Vittorio Colao (CEO) and Gerard Kleisterlee (Chairman) (Vodafone, 2012a). It provides employment opportunities to around 87,000 citizens across the globe and also, generates income opportunities to numerous business acquaintances of the company. Some of the commodities of the company include mobile telephony, digital television, fixed line and internet services. As of 2012, the net revenue of the organization was ?46.417 billion and had operating earnings of ?11.187 billion (The World Bank, 2012). Although, the company has a hefty position in the marketplace, it still has to deal with

The Inheritors by William Golding Essay Example for Free

The Inheritors by William Golding Essay Abstract This analytical essay presents an in-depth analysis of the book The Inheritors, which was written by William Golding. The bibliography appends one source in APA format. Outline Introduction Primary ideas of the reading Reflection of the time in which the reading was produced Personal response to the reading Conclusion Introduction â€Å"Golding favored this work above all his others. Many have agreed that his account of the final defeat of the last Neanderthal individuals at the hands of the emergent human race is powerfully and above all consistently imagined. The triumphs and disasters of the future are tragically implicit in this evocation of the conquest of an earlier, gentler group by those who are for good and ill our ancestors†. Anonymous   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   William Golding was one of the most significant novelists of the 1950s and the 1960s. Golding was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in the year 1983 and he also won the Booker Prize in the year 1980. â€Å"The Inheritors† is a well-known book written by William Golding, who is the author of the famous novel Lord of the Flies. Written in the year 1955, the book is based on Neanderthals and Homo sapiens and basically shows the inherent violent nature of the Homo sapiens. The novel is about the last of the Neanderthals and how the Homo sapiens gained success over them by the use of brutality and pretense with their natural superiority. The Neanderthals have been shown as very simple people, whose most prominent characteristic is that they think in images. In their world, understanding someone meant being able to see their picture. Also, in their highly amusing world, fire and water have the ability to be awake or fall asleep and even a log decides where and how to place itself in the water. As the author says, â€Å"He had thought that he must make sure the log was still in position because if the water had taken the log or if the log had crawled of on business of its own then the people would have to trek a day’s journey round the swamp and that meant danger or even more discomfort than usual† (Golding, p.12).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The books written by William Golding are all based on the depravity of the human mind and nature. The Inheritors is one of those books. In the novel the author has brilliantly through his imagination recreated the world of the Neanderthals and of the successors of the Neanderthals, that is, the first of the human species. As mentioned above The Inheritors was the personal favorite of William Golding out of all his books and novels, and is related to the disappearance of the last of the Neanderthals by the hands of the much more refined and newly advanced species known as the Homo sapiens. Primary Ideas of the Reading â€Å"His novels†¦with the perspicuity of realistic narrative art and universality of myth, illuminate the human condition in the world today† Sweidsh Academy Nobel Prize Citation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Inheritors is a novel written by William Golding as an imaginative reconstruction of the life of a group og Neanderthals. William Golding in this novel takes the readers for a journey through the world of the primitive men and the world is such that is seen by the eyes, visions, and up-and-coming language expressions of the first of the humans. The characters have been drawn by the author rather very sensitively, covering each and every characteristic of theirs. In the novel, the language of the Neanderthals is limited to images or pictures, which they form in their mind. For example, in the words of the author, â€Å"He shut his eyes and frowned at the picture of the log† (Golding, p.12). The Neanderthals were highly dependant on their senses. They used them to detect intruders and to assure safety, As the author writes, â€Å"Then he searched the forest with ear and nose for intruders and only when he was sure of safety did he put down his thorn bush and kneel by the water† (Golding, p.12). The mental images of theirs are used by the Neanderthals to show them the way to food, their seasonal homes and to save them from possible dangers. The descriptions that have been given by the author are very precise. Marvelously defined are the surroundings and feelings of all the characters. Cold, drenched, starving, reliance on a sense of smell, stones for armaments, hyenas indicating a kill for the group of our most primitive ancestors to steal, and a blossoming plant intertwined forest of the early spring abounding with a mystical ice woman to be worshipped. This block of ice known as Oa is worshipped and awed by the whole of the tribe of Neanderthals. The book has been written by the author in such a way that at times one begins to consider the Neanderthals as the Homo sapiens. The Neanderthals are portrayed as characters, which do not talk but only gesture to each other, form images in their mind and carry out the burial of their dead with heartfelt, solemn rituals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are only eight of the remaining Neanderthals in the story, out of which there are six adults and a small girl and an infant. The tribal clan is led by a Neanderthal namely Lok. The story begins with a pair of Neanderthals who witness the death of a number of people of their group, which later proceeds on to the the kidnap of the infant neandethral. The parents of the infant neandethral begin observing the human species that live on a river island (and are scared of Neandethrals as they consider them demons of the forest). The neandethrals have their own religious rituals and while observing the humans through the tress they find out that the humans have completely different rituals. The religious activities of the Neandethrals are centered around Oa, the block of ice, while the activites of the Homo sapiens were centered around a female matriarch-priestess. The humans live across the river and the Neandethrals are extremely scared of crossing the water due to the fact that they cannot swim hence they are very scared to walk through the water to save their daughter. The homo sapiens have captured the daughter of the Neandethrals because their priestess wishes to keep her as her pet as she fancies the red her and the childish features of the infant. The new people, that is the homo sapiens are extremely different. The new people have already built boats, have weapons such as bows and arrows, have a very complex way of life and live rather sophisticated lives, know how to ferment honey into had used the bow-and-arrow as a formidable weapon, developed a more complex social structure, knew how to ferment honey into liquor, and also know of ways to protect themselves from h armful elements. These two groups of people have no single thing common between each other and do not gain anything common by the end of the novel. The new people, that is the homo sapiens have brought along with them art, war, lust, intoxication etc and eventually a battle takes place between them in order to see who the superior power is or that who has the ability to survive in the long run and who has the dominating power. A number of kidnaps as well as murders take place, but after all, humans with their treachery and sharp minds take over the Neanderthals and wipe them off the surface of earth. The Neanderthals had long before accepted the fact that the new species that is the Homo sapiens have such knowledge, wisdom, and weapons, control over the elements etc that the simpler species that is the Neanderthals would face nothing but doom at their hand. Reflection of the time in which the reading was produced   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Inheritors was written in the year 1955. By then, the general perception related to the first humans was that the Neanderthals had become distinct and they disappeared because of the fact that they fell in love with their beautiful human neighbors, that is the Homo sapiens. However, The Inheritors shows us a completely different picture. The book was written at a time when nearly nothing was known of the days when Neanderthals walked on earth. Back then, no research what so ever had been conducted regarding the period of the Neanderthals and the first humans and the way the humans had taken over the Neanderthals. It was in the 1950s that it was found that the primitive people, the first Homo Sapien had come up with a way to cross the water and not drown. This was a time when nothing was known of our ancestors, their society, their social lives, their characteristics, their features and all of this had to be brought out into the open so that we may realize just what we used to be and what we are now – sadly, there is not much of a difference.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When one goes through the book under consideration, that is, The Inheritors, he or she gets to see his ancestors. The ancestors, who had already made weapons, were extremely ignorant, had the tendency to kill for their own good and were completely corrupt. It was believed back then (when the book was written) from what little was known about the Neanderthals that the Homo sapiens were superior to the Neanderthals. This according to Golding was untrue. The Homo sapiens were not superior in anyway what so ever. What the Homo sapiens were was more evil and clever.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While going through the book today, we see a part of the current humans in the Homo sapiens of the first kind. There are extreme similarities between us and the Homo sapiens that have been portrayed by Golding in his book. The novel has been written about a time when the Neanderthals were disappearing and a new much cleverer and well-occupied kind of man came into being. These men were the Homo sapiens and they were none other than our ancestors. The Neanderthals were disappearing because of the Homo sapiens as they were gaining power over the land. Back then, the Homo sapiens killed the Neanderthals and today humans are killing off each other, which proves that man has not changed at all since then. Personal Response to the Reading   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the book we see a group of Neanderthals (they did not have family relations) who lived a peaceful life in their own world. Changes in the climate, the arrival of the Homo sapiens on the other side of the river along with certain bad omens from their God have upset them. The changes in the current environment is upsetting them because of the fact that they are not at all equipped to handle the changes that are taking place and all they have is the knowledge that they have inherited from their ancestors and completely lack in creative abilities and skills unlike the Homo sapiens who have equipped themselves with all it takes to counter the changing environment and are not at all afraid of the elements. These newcomers or the Homo sapiens have been portrayed as very clever, quick-witted beings that unlike the Neanderthals have a language and they also take up violence in order to get what they want. They notice that the Homo sapiens were armed with bows and arrows along with sharp tools that were made out of bone and they could cross the river without drowning by the use of rowing logs (boats). My personal response to the reading is that the book is very interesting although highly confusing as well. But no matter what, the book is very absorbing and it also presents us with an insight into the social life of the humans as to how humans can survive with only the earth as a guide for them to live. I believe that the story is somehow a bit disturbing, as it reveals the truth about our ancestors and it is rather hurtful to know that it was our ancestors, who were among the first to begin manslaughter. It is disturbing to find out that our ancestors were the ones who destroyed an entire species. This notion makes the reader feel very sympathetic towards the Neanderthals and it shows that the weak or the submissive people are not the inheritors of earth. They somehow, struggle to put up with the changing circumstances and we further see them failing badly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This piece of writing shows us the darkness that exists in the heart of the humans since the very beginning. It shows that the history of mankind is full of violence and barbaric acts that have been carried out against the innocent. Perhaps, the author is trying to show the two sides of a human beings nature. The innocent and caring nature of the Neanderthal symbolizing the love that perhaps every human has locked up deep within himself and the violent nature of the Homo sapiens depicting the darker side of a human being. The Neanderthals were very simple and believed in even a wooden log having its own will. They talked in pictures and thoughts. They believed in water being alive and awake or asleep. As the writer says, â€Å"the water was not awake like the river or the fall but asleep, spreading there to the river and waking up, stretching on the right into wildernesses of impassable swamp and thicket and bog. So sure was he of this log the people always used that he opened his eyes again, beginning to smile as if he were waking out of a dream; but the log was gone† (Golding, p.12). The only idea that I personally disagree with is that of telepathy between the Neanderthals. The story tells us that they did have the ability to talk, but they did not do so. Another aspect of the book which can cause problems for a reader is the fact that it is written completely from the point of view of Lok, hence certain things about the going-on’s are somehow confusing as it lacks clarity. At times one does not even know as to what is going on. But all in all, the entire book is very interesting and it lets a person learn much about they ways of his or her ancestors. The book is very enlightening and the fact that it is disturbing can be ignored in order to learn the truth about history and primitive men. Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the light of the above discussion we can hereby culminate that the book under consideration, that is, The Inheritors was written by William Golding. The book was penned down by the author in the year 1955 after his extremely famous novel known as Lord of the Flies. The basic theme of the book is to educate the people about their ancestors that are the first of the Homo sapiens and the ways by which they took over the Neanderthals who were the last of their kind. The Neanderthals were simple, caring yet curious, while the Homo sapiens were clever, quick-witted, could cheat and commit treachery and could also get violent in order to get what they want. Eventually the Homo sapiens finished off the last generation of Neanderthals and took over the earth, or in other words, became the inheritors of earth. The book is at times very disturbing but all in all it is a good read as it tells us of the ways of our ancestors, which still prevail in our society and makes one think as to why we have not changed at all in all these years.                                           Bibliography Golding, W. (1955). The Inheritors. United Kingdom. Harvest Books. ISBN: 0156443791. Page 12